Ivar Giæver: The Engineer Who Tuned into the Quantum World
Ivar Giæver (born April 5, 1929) is a Norwegian-American physicist whose career serves as a testament to the power of interdisciplinary thinking. A Nobel Laureate who began his professional life as a mechanical engineer, Giæver bridged the gap between classical engineering and quantum physics, and later, between physics and biology. His discovery of electron tunneling in superconductors revolutionized our understanding of condensed matter and paved the way for modern quantum electronics.
1. Biography: The Accidental Physicist
Early Life and Education
Ivar Giæver was born in Bergen, Norway, and grew up in the city of Toten. Unlike many Nobel physicists who show an early aptitude for theoretical mathematics, Giæver’s initial interests were practical. He studied mechanical engineering at the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH) in Trondheim, graduating in 1952.
The Migration to Physics
After completing his military service and a brief stint as a patent examiner, Giæver emigrated to Canada in 1954 and then to the United States in 1956. He joined the General Electric (GE) Company, initially working as an engineer in the Advanced Technology Laboratories. It was here that his trajectory shifted. GE encouraged its engineers to take advanced courses; Giæver began studying physics at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), eventually earning his PhD in 1964.
Academic and Professional Positions
Giæver spent the bulk of his career at the GE Research and Development Center in Schenectady, New York (1958–1988). Parallel to his corporate research, he held an adjunct professorship at RPI and later became a professor at the University of Oslo. In 1988, he transitioned into the world of biotechnology, co-founding Applied BioPhysics, Inc.
2. Major Contributions: Tunneling and Biophysics
Quantum Tunneling in Superconductors
Giæver’s most significant contribution came in 1960. While studying the properties of thin films, he investigated the phenomenon of "quantum tunneling"—a process where particles pass through a barrier that should be impassable according to classical physics.
Building on the work of Leo Esaki (who demonstrated tunneling in semiconductors), Giæver experimented with "sandwiches" made of a metal, a thin insulating layer (usually an oxide), and a superconductor. He demonstrated that if one of the metals was in a superconducting state, the tunneling current provided a direct measurement of the "energy gap" in the superconductor. This provided the first experimental confirmation of a key prediction of the BCS theory (Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory) of superconductivity.
Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS)
In the late 1970s, Giæver pivoted to biophysics. He applied his knowledge of thin films and electronics to study how living cells behave on surfaces. He developed ECIS, a method that uses gold electrodes to monitor the movement and morphology of mammalian cells in real-time. This technology became a cornerstone for studying cell adhesion, migration, and the effects of drugs on cancerous cells.
3. Notable Publications
- "Energy Gap in Superconductors Measured by Electron Tunneling" (1960): Published in Physical Review Letters, this paper detailed his groundbreaking experiment using aluminum/magnesium oxide/lead junctions.
- "Electron Tunneling between Two Superconductors" (1961): This followed his initial discovery, further refining the observation of the energy gap and the density of states in superconductors.
- "The behavior of mammalian cells on small electrodes" (1984): Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) with Charles R. Keese, this work introduced the world to ECIS and marked his definitive entry into biophysics.
4. Awards & Recognition
- Nobel Prize in Physics (1973): Shared with Leo Esaki and Brian Josephson "for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively."
- Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize (1965): Awarded by the American Physical Society for his pioneering work on tunneling.
- Zworykin Award (1974): Awarded by the National Academy of Engineering.
- Member of the National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering: A rare "double" membership reflecting his impact on both pure science and practical application.
- Honorary Doctorates: Received numerous honorary degrees from institutions including the University of Oslo and Michigan Technological University.
5. Impact & Legacy
Giæver’s work on tunneling transformed superconductivity from a theoretical curiosity into a measurable, predictable field of physics. His experiments provided the "smoking gun" for the BCS theory, which remains the standard model for conventional superconductivity.
In the realm of technology, his tunneling research laid the groundwork for the development of the SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device), an incredibly sensitive magnetometer used in medical imaging (MEG) and geological surveys. In his later career, his ECIS technology became a vital tool in cell biology laboratories worldwide, allowing researchers to study cell behavior without the use of invasive dyes or labels.
6. Collaborations
- Charles P. Bean: A fellow GE researcher who mentored Giæver during his early transition into physics and co-authored several early papers.
- Charles R. Keese: Giæver’s primary collaborator in biophysics. Together, they developed the ECIS technology and founded Applied BioPhysics, Inc. to commercialize their research.
- The "Tunneling Trio": While they did not work in the same lab, Giæver’s legacy is forever linked to Leo Esaki and Brian Josephson. Their combined work in the early 1960s defined the "Golden Age" of quantum tunneling.
7. Lesser-Known Facts
- The "Engineer’s Intuition": Giæver often attributed his success to his mechanical engineering background. He famously stated:
"I didn't know enough physics to know that my tunneling experiments were supposed to be 'difficult,' so I simply went ahead and built the apparatus."
- Climate Change Skepticism: In his later years, Giæver became a controversial figure in the scientific community due to his vocal skepticism regarding human-caused global warming. In 2011, he resigned from the American Physical Society (APS) in protest over the organization’s official policy statement on climate change.
- The Nobel Phone Call: When he received the call from Stockholm in 1973, he was reportedly working in his garden. He initially thought it was a prank played by his colleagues at GE.
- A "Late" PhD: Giæver is one of the few Nobel Laureates to have completed his most famous, prize-winning work (1960) before he had even earned his PhD (1964).
Ivar Giæver’s career serves as a bridge between the industrial laboratory and the academic hall, proving that a practical engineering mindset can unlock the deepest mysteries of quantum mechanics.