Sir Harry Kroto: The Architect of the Nanoworld
Sir Harold "Harry" Kroto (1939–2016) was a British chemist whose curiosity about the vast reaches of interstellar space led to a discovery that redefined our understanding of the terrestrial world. Best known for the co-discovery of C60, or "Buckminsterfullerene," Kroto was a polymath who seamlessly blended the precision of molecular spectroscopy with the aesthetic eye of a graphic designer.
1. Biography: From Refugee Roots to Academic Eminence
Early Life and Education
Harold Walter Krotoshiner was born on October 7, 1939, in Wisbech, Cambridgeshire. His parents, Heinz and Edith, were refugees from Nazi Germany; his father was of Polish-Jewish descent. The family later shortened their name to Kroto in 1955. Harry grew up in Bolton, Lancashire, where he attended the Bolton School.
He pursued his higher education at the University of Sheffield, earning a First Class BSc in Chemistry (1961) and a PhD in Molecular Spectroscopy (1964). His doctoral work focused on the spectroscopy of free radicals produced by flash photolysis—a technique that would later prove vital to his Nobel-winning research.
Academic Career
After postdoctoral fellowships at the National Research Council in Ottawa, Canada (1964–1966) and Bell Laboratories in New Jersey (1966–1967), Kroto returned to the UK to join the University of Sussex. He spent nearly 40 years at Sussex, rising to the rank of Professor in 1985 and a Royal Society Research Professor in 1991. In 2004, he moved to the United States to become the Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at Florida State University, where he remained active until his death on April 30, 2016.
2. Major Contributions: The Discovery of the Third Allotrope
The Quest for Interstellar Carbon
Kroto’s primary interest was Astrochemistry. In the 1970s, using radio astronomy, he discovered long, chain-like carbon molecules (cyanopolyynes) in the interstellar medium and the atmospheres of red giant stars. He was puzzled by how these chains formed in such harsh environments.
The C60 Breakthrough (1985)
To test his theories, Kroto collaborated with Richard Smalley and Robert Curl at Rice University in Texas. Using Smalley’s sophisticated laser-ablation apparatus (the AP2), they simulated the intense heat of a star’s atmosphere by vaporizing graphite.
The experiment yielded an unexpected result: a remarkably stable molecule consisting of 60 carbon atoms. Kroto proposed that these atoms were arranged in a hollow, spherical cage—a truncated icosahedron. This structure, resembling a soccer ball, was named Buckminsterfullerene (after the architect Buckminster Fuller, known for his geodesic domes). This discovery revealed a third stable form of carbon, alongside diamond and graphite, and birthed the field of "Fullerene chemistry."
3. Notable Publications
Kroto was a prolific writer, but three works stand out for their transformative impact:
- "C60: Buckminsterfullerene" (Nature, 1985): Co-authored with J. R. Heath, S. C. O'Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley. This is the seminal paper announcing the discovery of the fullerene. It remains one of the most cited papers in the history of chemistry.
- "Molecular Rotation Spectra" (1975): A definitive textbook in the field of spectroscopy that remains a foundational resource for students and researchers studying the microwave spectra of molecules.
- "C60: Buckminsterfullerene, The Celestial Sphere that Fell to Earth" (Angewandte Chemie, 1992): An elegant review article that contextualized the discovery within the broader scope of chemical history and future potential.
4. Awards & Recognition
Kroto’s contributions earned him the highest honors in science:
- Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1996): Shared with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley
"for their discovery of fullerenes."
- Knighthood (1996): For his services to chemistry.
- Copley Medal (2004): The Royal Society’s premier award, previously won by Darwin and Einstein.
- Michael Faraday Prize (2001): For his excellence in communicating science to the public.
- Honorary Degrees: He received over 40 honorary doctorates from universities worldwide.
5. Impact & Legacy: The Birth of Nanotechnology
Kroto’s discovery of C60 was the "Big Bang" of modern Nanotechnology.
- Carbon Nanostructures: The discovery of fullerenes directly inspired the later discovery of carbon nanotubes (by Sumio Iijima) and the isolation of graphene. These materials are now central to developments in electronics, material science, and medicine.
- Astrochemistry: His work proved that complex organic molecules could form in space, significantly influencing our theories on the origins of life and the composition of cosmic dust.
- Science Communication: Kroto was a fierce advocate for science education. He founded the Vega Science Trust in 1994 to create high-quality science films for television and the internet, and later established GEOSET (Global Educational Outreach for Science, Engineering, and Technology), an online repository for educators.
6. Collaborations
Kroto’s career was defined by fruitful, though sometimes intense, partnerships:
- The Rice Trio: His partnership with Richard Smalley and Robert Curl was the catalyst for the Nobel-winning discovery. While Smalley provided the engineering genius of the laser apparatus, Kroto provided the chemical intuition and the "space-based" hypothesis.
- David Walton: At the University of Sussex, Kroto worked closely with Walton to synthesize the long carbon chains that first led him to suspect the existence of unique carbon structures.
- Jonathan Hare: A student and later colleague who worked with Kroto on the "Buckyball Workshops," which brought the excitement of the discovery to thousands of schoolchildren.
7. Lesser-Known Facts
- Graphic Design Talent: Before his scientific career took off, Kroto seriously considered a career in graphic design. He designed numerous posters, book covers, and logos (including the logo for the Vega Science Trust). He often remarked that his "visual thinking" was what allowed him to imagine the 3D structure of C60.
- The "Krotoshiner" Balloon: As a child of refugees during WWII, he was briefly classified as an "enemy alien" at the age of one, despite being born in England.
- Atheism and Humanism: Kroto was a staunch and vocal atheist. He was a distinguished supporter of the British Humanist Association and frequently spoke about the need for rationalism and the dangers of religious dogma in education.
- A Passion for Tennis: Even in his later years, Kroto was known for his competitive spirit on the tennis court, often inviting colleagues and students for matches where he displayed the same energy he brought to the laboratory.